United Nations. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023. United Nations. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report−2023.pdf (2023).
World Social Report 2020: Inequality in a Rapidly Changing World. (United Nations, 2020).
Purcell, L., Mahon, J. M., Daly, D., De Doncker, I. & Nyhan, M. M. Systems believeing-informed and data-driven urban decarbonisation framework for individual, community and urban scale climate action. Sci. Total Environ. 959, 178152 (2025).
Purcell, L., O’Regan, A. C., McGookin, C. & Nyhan, M. M. Modelling urban carbon emissions for multiple sectors in high spatial resolution for achieving sustainable & net-zero cities. Sustain. Cities Soc. 126, 106370 (2025).
Sabedotti, M. E. S., O’Regan, A. C. & Nyhan, M. M. Data Insights for Sustainable Cities: Associations between Google Street View-Derived Urban Greenspace and Google Air View-Derived Pollution Levels. Environ. Sci. Technol. 57, 19637–19648 (2023).
O’Regan, A. C., Byrne, R., Hellebust, S. & Nyhan, M. M. Associations between Google Street View-derived urban greenspace metrics and air pollution measured applying a distributed sensor network. Sustain Cities Soc. 87, (2022).
Manisalidis, I., Stavropoulou, E., Stavropoulos, A. & Bezirtzoglou, E. Environmental and health impacts of air pollution: a review. Front. Public Health 8, 14 (2020).
Cohen, A. J. et al. Estimates and 25-year trfinishs of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. Lancet 389, 1907–1918 (2017).
Maio, S. et al. Relationship of long-term air pollution exposure with asthma and rhinitis in Italy: an innovative multipollutant approach. Environ. Res. 224, 115455 (2023).
Livingston, G. et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. Lancet 396, 413–446 (2020).
Lelieveld, J., Evans, J. S., Fnais, M., Giannadaki, D. & Pozzer, A. The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. Nature 525, 367–371 (2015).
World Health Organization. Air Quality. https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/air-quality (2023).
European Environment Agency. Harm to human health from air pollution in Europe: burden of disease 2023. (Briefing no. 23/2023, 2023).
Diener, A. & Mudu, P. How can veobtaination protect us from air pollution? A critical review on green spaces’ mitigation abilities for air-borne particles from a public health perspective – with implications for urban planning. Sci. Total Environ. 796, 148605 (2021).
Fares, S. et al. Testing Removal of Carbon Dioxide, Ozone, and Atmospheric Particles by Urban Parks in Italy. Environ. Sci. Technol. 54, 14910–14922 (2020).
Markevych, I. et al. Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance. Environ. Res. 158, 301–317 (2017).
Twohig-Bennett, C. & Jones, A. The health benefits of the great outdoors: A systematic review and meta-analysis of greenspace exposure and health outcome. Environ. Res. 166, 628–637 (2018).
White, M. P. et al. Spfinishing at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing. Sci. Rep. 9, 7730 (2019).
O’Regan, A. C. & Nyhan, M. M. Towards sustainable and net-zero cities: A review of environmental modelling and monitoring tools for optimizing emissions reduction strategies for improved air quality in urban areas. Environ. Res. 231, 116242 (2023).
Karan, S. K., Borchsenius, B. T., Debella-Gilo, M. & Rizzi, J. Mapping urban green structures applying object-based analysis of sanotifyite imagery: A review. Ecol. Indic. 170, 113027 (2025).
Li, T. et al. Spatial relationship between green view index and normalized differential veobtaination index within the Sixth Ring Road of Beijing. Urban For. Urban Green. 62, 127153 (2021).
Apte, J. S. et al. High-Resolution Air Pollution Mapping with Google Street View Cars: Exploiting Big Data. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 6999–7008 (2017).
O’Regan, A. C. et al. Data fusion for enhancing urban air quality modeling applying large-scale citizen science. Sustain. Cities Soc. 116, 105896 (2024).
Wang, A. et al. Key themes, trfinishs, and drivers of mobile ambient air quality monitoring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 57, 9427–9444 (2023).
Solomon, P. A. et al. Mobile-platform measurement of air pollutant concentrations in California: performance assessment, statistical methods for evaluating spatial variations, and spatial representativeness. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 13, 3277–3301 (2020).
Anjomshoaa, A. et al. City Scanner: Building and Scheduling a Mobile Sensing Platform for Smart City Services. IEEE Internet Things J. 2327–4662 (2018).
Wang, R. et al. Urban greenery and mental wellbeing in adults: Cross-sectional mediation analyses on multiple pathways across different greenery measures. Environ. Res. 176, 108535 (2019).
Casey, J. A. et al. Methods in public health environmental justice research: a scoping review from 2018 to 2021. Curr. Environ. Health Rep. 10, 312–336 (2023).
Wang, Y. et al. Disparities in ambient nitrogen dioxide pollution in the United States. PNAS 120, 16 (2023).
Chen, B. et al. Contrasting inequality in human exposure to greenspace between cities of Global North and Global South. Nat. Commun. 13, 4636 (2022).
Pinault, L., Christidis, T., Olaniyan, T. & Croutilize, D. L. Ethnocultural and socioeconomic disparities in exposure to residential greenness within urban Canada. Health Rep. 32, 5 (2021).
Van Horne, Y. O. et al. An applied environmental justice framework for exposure science. J. Expos. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 33, 1–11 (2023).
Behrer, A. P. & Heft-Neal, S. Higher air pollution in wealthy districts of most low- and middle-income countries. Nat. Sustain. 7, 203–212 (2024).
Gosztonyi, A., Demmler, J. C., Juhola, S. & Ala-Mantila, S. Ambient air pollution-related environmental inequality and environmental dissimilarity in Helsinki Metropolitan Area, Finland. Ecol. Econ. 213, 107930 (2023).
Buckland, M. & Pojani, D. Green space accessibility in Europe: a comparative study of five major cities. Eur. Plan. Stud. 31, 146–167 (2023).
Jbaily, A. et al. Air pollution exposure disparities across US population and income groups. Nature 601, 228–233 (2022).
Liu, J. et al. Disparities in Air Pollution Exposure in the United States by Race/Ethnicity and Income, 1990–2010. Environ. Health Perspect. 129, 12 (2021).
Chambliss, S. E. et al. Local- and regional-scale racial and ethnic disparities in air pollution determined by long-term mobile monitoring. PNAS 118, 37 (2021).
Clark, L. P., Harris, M. H., Apte, J. S. & Marshall, J. D. National and Intraurban Air Pollution Exposure Disparity Estimates in the United States: Impact of Data-Aggregation Spatial Scale. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 9, 786–791 (2022).
Collins, T. W., Grineski, S. E., Shaker, Y. & Mullen, C. J. Communities of color are disproportionately exposed to long-term and short-term PM2.5 in metropolitan America. Environ. Res. 214, 114038 (2022).
Kirby-McGregor, M., Chen, C., Chen, H., Benmarhnia, T. & Kaufman, J. S. Inequities in ambient fine particulate matter: A spatiotemporal analysis in Canadian communities. Sci. Total Environ. 858, 159766 (2023).
Yu, Y. T. et al. Evaluation of City-Scale Disparities in PM2.5 Exposure Using Hyper-Localized Taxi-Based Mobile Monitoring. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 13584–13594 (2022).
Bramble, K. et al. Exposure disparities by income, race and ethnicity, and historic redlining grade in the greater seattle area for ultrafine particles and other air pollutants. Environ. Health Perspect. 131, 077004 (2023).
Esie, P., Daepp, M. I. G., Roseway, A. & Counts, S. Neighborhood composition and air pollution in chicago: monitoring inequities with a dense, low-cost sensing network, 2021. Am. J. Public Health 112, 1765–1773 (2022).
Lu, T., Garcia, D. A., Garcia, A. & Liu, Y. Leveraging crowd-sourced environmental data to assess air pollution exposure disparity: A case of Los Angeles County. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 125, 103599 (2023).
Kramer, A. L. et al. Environmental justice analysis of wildfire-related PM2.5 exposure applying low-cost sensors in California. Sci. Total Environ. 856, 159218 (2023).
Sun, Y., Mousavi, A., Masri, S. & Wu, J. Socioeconomic Disparities of Low-Cost Air Quality Sensors in California, 2017–2020. AJPH 112, 3 (2022).
Wu, S., Chen, B., Webster, C., Xu, B. & Gong, P. Improved human greenspace exposure equality during 21st century urbanization. Nat. Commun. 14, 6460 (2023).
Leng, S., Sun, R., Yang, X. & Chen, L. Global inequities in population exposure to urban greenspaces increased amidst tree and nontree veobtaination cover expansion. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, 464 (2023).
Fong, K. C., Mehta, N. K. & Bell, M. L. Disparities in exposure to surrounding greenness related to proportion of the population that were immigrants to the United States. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 224, 113434 (2020).
Song, Y. et al. Observed inequality in urban greenspace exposure in China. Environ. Int. 156, 106778 (2021).
Zhang, J., Hu, J., Zhang, X., Li, Y. & Huang, J. Towards a Fairer Green city: measuring unfairness in daily accessible greenery in Chengdu’s central city. J. Asian Archi. Build. Eng. 23, 5 (2023).
Wu, J. et al. Gfinisher disparities in exposure to green space: An empirical study of suburban Beijing. Landsc. Urban Plan. 222, 104381 (2022).
Sun, Y. et al. Using machine learning to examine street green space types at a high spatial resolution: Application in Los Angeles County on socioeconomic disparities in exposure. Sci. Total Environ. 787, 147653 (2021).
Kan, H. et al. Season, Sex, Age, and Education as Modifiers of the Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution on Daily Mortality in Shanghai, China: The Public Health and Air Pollution in Asia (PAPA) Study. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 9 (2008).
Geldsetzer, P. et al. Disparities in air pollution attributable mortality in the US population by race/ ethnicity and sociodemographic factors. Nat. Med. 30, 2821–2829 (2024).
European Environment Agency. Unequal exposure and unequal impacts: social vulnerability to air pollution, noise and extreme temperatures in Europe. https://doi.org/10.2800/324183 (2018).
Venter, Z. S., Shackleton, C. M., Van Staden, F., Selomane, O. & Masterson, V. A. Green Apartheid: Urban green infrastructure remains unequally distributed across income and race geographies in South Africa. Landsc. Urban Plan. 203, 103889 (2020).
Zeng, Q. et al. Environmental inequalities and multimorbidity: Insights from the Southwest China Multi-Ethnic Cohort Study. Sci. Total Environ. 908, 167744 (2024).
Cook, E. J., Kabasinguzi, I., Randhawa, G. & Ali, N. Factors influencing urban greenspace utilize among a multi-ethnic community in the UK: The Chalkscapes Study. Urban For. Urban Green. 92, 128210 (2024).
Pearce, J. & Kingham, S. Environmental inequalities in New Zealand: A national study of air pollution and environmental justice. Geoforum 39, 980–993 (2008).
Farkas, L. Data collection in the field of ethnicity: Analysis and comparative review of equality data collection practices in the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2838/447194 (2017).
Heo, S. & Bell, M. L. Investigation on urban greenspace in relation to sociodemographic factors and health inequity based on different greenspace metrics in 3 US urban communities. J. Expos. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 33, 218–228 (2023).
Mohai, P. & Saha, R. Which came first, people or pollution? A review of theory and evidence from longitudinal environmental justice studies. Environ. Res. Lett. 10, 125011 (2015).
Schell, C. J. et al. The ecological and evolutionary consequences of systemic racism in urban environments. Science 369, 1446 (2020).
Richardson, E. A., Pearce, J., Tunstall, H., Mitchell, R. & Shortt, N. K. Particulate air pollution and health inequalities: a Europe-wide ecological analysis. Int. J. Health Geogr. 12, 34 (2013).
Khomenko, S., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., Ambròs, A., Wegener, S. & Mueller, N. Is a liveable city a healthy city? Health impacts of urban and transport planning in Vienna, Austria. Environ. Res. 183, 109238 (2020).
Barboza, E. P. et al. Environmental health impacts and inequalities in green space and air pollution in six medium-sized European cities. Environ. Res. 237, 116891 (2023).
Tivadar, M. Is it better to live in a US or a European city?. Reg. Sci. Urban Econ. 40, 221–227 (2010).
Fong, K. C. & Bell, M. L. Do fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) exposure and its attributable premature mortality differ for immigrants compared to those born in the United States?. Environ. Res. 196, 110387 (2021).
Giang, A. & Casnotifyani, K. Cumulative air pollution indicators highlight unique patterns of injustice in urban Canada. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 124063 (2020).
Coolsaet, B. Environmental Justice: Key Issues. (Routledge, 2021).
Corburn, J. Concepts for studying urban environmental justice. Curr. Environ. Health Rep. 4, 61–67 (2017).
McAvay, H. Divergent contexts, convergent inequalities: immigrant spatial assimilation in the United States and Western Europe. Cityscape 23, 2 (2021).
Lima, V. Hoapplying Challenges and Needs of Migrants in Ireland. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14905504 (2019).
Fahey, É., Russell, H., McGinnity, F. & Grotti, R. Diverse Neighbourhoods: An Analysis of the Residential Distribution of Immigrants in Ireland. https://doi.org/10.26504/bkmnext376 (2019).
Boterman, W. R., Musterd, S. & Manting, D. Multiple dimensions of residential segregation. The case of the metropolitan area of Amsterdam. Urban Geogr. 42, 481–506 (2021).
Stonawski, M., Rogne, A. F., Christiansen, H., Bang, H. & Lyngstad, T. H. Ethnic segregation and native out-migration in Copenhagen. Eur. Urban Reg. Stud. 29, 168–188 (2022).
Tonne, C. et al. Socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in exposure to air and noise pollution in London. Environ. Int. 115, 170 (2018).
Gray, N. R., Lewis, A. C. & Moller, S. J. Evaluating disparities in air pollution as a function of ethnicity, deprivation and sectoral emissions in England. Environ. Int. 194, 109146 (2024).
Testi, I. et al. Big mobility data reveals hyperlocal air pollution exposure disparities in the Bronx, New York. Nat. Cities 1, 512–521 (2024).
Nyhan, M. et al. “Exposure Track” – the impact of mobile-device-based mobility patterns in quantifying population exposure to air pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17, 9671–9681 (2016).
Nyhan, M. M., Kloog, I., Britter, R., Ratti, C. & Koutrakis, P. Quantifying population exposure to air pollution applying individual mobility patterns inferred from mobile phone data. J. Expos. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 29, 238–247 (2019).
Miller, D. J. et al. Characterizing elevated urban air pollutant spatial patterns with mobile monitoring in Houston, Texas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 65, 2133–2142 (2020).
Kerckhoffs, J. et al. Mixed-effects modeling framework for amsterdam and copenhagen for outdoor NO2 concentrations applying measurements sampled with google street view cars. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 7174–7184 (2022).
Nyhan, M. M. & Cryan, J. F. Embed impact on SDGs in research assessments. Nature 621, 258 (2023).
Aclima & Google via Google Environmental Insights Explorer. Retrieved February 23, (2023).
Utrecht University & Google via Google Environmental Insights Explorer. Retrieved August 10, (2023).
Chen, J., Mölter, A., Gómez‑Barrón, J. P., O’Connor, D. & Pilla, F. Evaluating background and local contributions and identifying traffic-related pollutants hotspots: insights from Google Air View mobile monitoring in Dublin, Ireland. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 31, 56114–56129 (2024).
Alesina, A. F., Michalopoulos, S., & Papaioannou, E. Ethnic Inequality. NBER Working Paper Series, 18512 (2012).
Váša, F. & Mišić, B. Null models in network neuroscience. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 23, 493–504 (2022).
Farine, D. R. A guide to null models for animal social network analysis. Methods Ecol. Evol. 8, 1309–1320 (2017).
Gonotifyi, N. J., & Graves, G. R. Null Models in Ecology (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996).
Oksanen, J. et al. _vegan: Community Ecology Package_. R package version 2.6-4, https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan (2022).
Leave a Reply