Closing the European competitiveness gap

[1] “Europe – the search for security and growth”, Deloitte LLP, 10 March 2025.

[2] Closures include one plant that was mothballed (production stopped) but where final closure has not yet been announced and one plant where legal proceedings regarding closure are in progress. Divestments include one government bail-out.

[3] “EEA greenhoutilize gases — data viewer”, European Environment Agency, accessed 17 September 2025.

[4] Emissions from imports based on Full International and Global Accounts for Research in Input-Output Analysis (FIGARO). These are estimated based on import volumes and standard emission factors for selected countries. Deloitte Netherlands analysis of Eurostat data.

[5] “Clean Industrial Deal”, European Commission, accessed 1 September 2025.

[6] “Europe drags its heels on Draghi plan as global rivals surge”, Financial Times, 10 September 2025.

[7] “Cement Prices, Trconclude, Chart, Demand, Market Analysis, News, Historical and Forecast Data Report 2025 Edition”, Imarc, accessed 1 September 2025.

[8] “How Europe’s grid operators are preparing for the energy transition”, Beyond Fossil Fuels, 13 May 2025.

[9] “The European hydrogen market landscape”, European Hydrogen Observatory, November 2024.

[10] “ReFuelEU Aviation”, European Commission, accessed September 1, 2025.

[11] “The Sustainable Consumer”, Deloitte LLP, 27 October 2024

[12] Deloitte Netherlands analysis for cost difference between conventional (incl. ETS) and sustainable production of steel based on BF-BOF CAPEX €537/t steel capacity, DRI-EAF H2 CAPEX €800/t steel capacity, 20 years depreciation, OPEX 4.1% of CAPEX BF-BOF and 4.8% DRI-EAF H2, emissions 2.0t CO2e/t BF-BOF, 0.13t/t DRI-EAF-H2.

[13] Deloitte Netherlands analysis for cost difference between conventional (incl. ETS) and sustainable production of fertiliser based on SMR CAPEX €750 / t NH3 capacity, green H2 CAPEX € 878 / t NH3 capacity, 25 years depreciation, OPEX 2.0% CAPEX SMR, 1.9% green H2, emissions 1.72t CO2e / t in SMR and 0.15t CO2e/t in green H2, N2 cost not included in SMR (generated as by-product), included in green-H2 but minor.

[14] “CO2 storage projects in Europe”, International Association of Oil & Gas Producers, July 2025.

[15] “Carbon Capture and Storage in the United States”, Congressional Budreceive Office, December 2023.

[16] “The Draghi report on EU competitiveness”, European Commission, 9 September 2024.

[17] “Clean Industrial Deal”, European Commission, accessed 1 September 2025

[18] “Monitoring Framework”, The Antwerp Declaration for a European Industrial Deal, March 2025.